Chapter 16 R Language Control Structures

In chapter Functions we briefly described conditional execution using the if/else construct. Here we introduce the other main control structures, and cover the if/else statement in more detail.

16.1 Loops

One of the common problems that computers are good at, is to execute similar tasks repeatedly many times. This can be achieved through loops. R implements three loops: for-loop, while-loop, and repeat-loop, these are among the most popular loops in many modern programming languages. Loops are often advised agains in case of R. While it is true that loops in R are more demanding than in several other languages, and can often be replaced by more efficient constructs, they nevertheless have a very important role in R. Good usage of loops is easy, fast, and improves the readability of your code.

16.1.1 For Loop

For-loop is a good choice if you want to run some statements repeatedly, each time picking a different value for a variable from a sequence; or just repeat some statements a given number of times. The syntax of for-loop is the following:

for(variable in sequence) {
                           # do something many times.  Each time 'variable' has
                           # a different value, taken from 'sequence'
}

The statement block inside of the curly braces {} is repeated through the sequence.

Despite the curly braces, the loop body is still evaluated in the same environment as the rest of the code. This means the variables generated before entering the loop are visible from inside, and the variables created inside will be visible after the loop ends. This is in contrast to functions where the function body, also enclosed in curly braces, is a separate scope.

A simple and perhaps the most common usage of for loop is just to run some code a given number of times:

for(i in 1:5)
   print(i)

## [1] 1
## [1] 2
## [1] 3
## [1] 4
## [1] 5

Through the loop the variable i takes all the values from the sequence 1:5. Note: we do not need curly braces if the loop block only contains a single statement.

But the sequence does not have to be a simple sequence of numbers. It may as well be a list:

data <- list("Xiaotian", 25, c(2061234567, 2069876543))
for(field in data) {
   cat("field length:", length(field), "\n")
}

## field length: 1 
## field length: 1 
## field length: 2

As another less common example, we may run different functions over the same data:

data <- 1:4
for(fun in c(sqrt, exp, sin)) {
   print(fun(data))
}

## [1] 1.000000 1.414214 1.732051 2.000000
## [1]  2.718282  7.389056 20.085537 54.598150
## [1]  0.8414710  0.9092974  0.1411200 -0.7568025

16.1.2 While-loop

While-loop let’s the programmer to decide explicitly if we want to execute the statements one more time:

while(condition) {
                           # do something if the 'condition' is true
}

For instance, we can repeat something a given number of times (although this is more of a task for for-loop):

i <- 0
while(i < 5) {
   print(i)
   i <- i + 1
}

## [1] 0
## [1] 1
## [1] 2
## [1] 3
## [1] 4

Note that in case the condition is not true to begin with, the loop never executes and control is immediately passed to the code after the loop:

i <- 10
while(i < 5) {
   print(i)
   i <- i + 1
}
cat("done\n")

## done

While-loop is great for handling repeated attempts to get input in shape. One can write something like this:

data <- getData()
while(!dataIsGood(data)) {
   data <- getData(tryReallyHard = TRUE)
}

This will run getData() until data is good. If it is not good at the first try, the code tries really hard next time(s).

While can also easily do infinite loops with:

while(TRUE) { ... }

will execute until something breaks the loop. Another somewhat interesting usage of while is to disable execution of part of your code:

while(FALSE) {
   ## code you don't want to be executed
}

16.1.3 repeat-loop

The R way of implementing repeat-loop does not include any condition and hence it just keeps running infdefinitely, or until something breaks the execution (see below):

repeat {
   ## just do something indefinitely many times.
   ## if you want to stop, use `break` statement.
}

Repeat is useful in many similar situations as while. For instance, we can write a modified version of getting data using repeat:

repeat {
   data <- getData()
   if(dataIsGood())
      break
}

The main difference between this, and the previous while-version is that we a) don’t have to write getData function twice, and b) on each try we attempt to get data in the same way.

Exactly as in the case of for and while loop, enclosing the loop body in curly braces is only necessary if it contains more than one statement. For instance, if you want to close all the graphics devices left open by buggy code, you can use the following one-liner from console:

repeat dev.off()

The loop will be broken by error when attempting to close the last null device.

It should also be noted that the loop does not create a separate environment (scope). All the variables from outside of the loop are visible inside, and variables created inside of the loop remain accessible after the loop terminates.

16.1.4 Leaving Early: `break` and `next`

A straightforward way to leave a loop is the break statement. It just leaves the loop and transfers control to the code immediately after the loop body. It breaks all three loops discussed here (for, while, and repeat-loops) but not some of the other types of loops implemented outside of base R. For instance:

for(i in 1:10) {
   cat(i, "\n")
   if(i > 4)
      break
}

## 1 
## 2 
## 3 
## 4 
## 5

cat("done\n")

## done

As the loop body will use the same environment (the same variable values) as the rest of the code, the loop variables can be used right afterwards. For instance, we can see that i = 5:

print(i)

## [1] 5

Opposite to break, next will throw the execution flow back to the head of the loop without running the commands following next. In case of for-loop, this means a new value is picked from the sequence, in case of while-loop the condition is evaluated again; the head of repeat loop does not do any calculations. For instance, we can print only even numbers:

for(i in 1:10) {
   if(i %% 2 != 0)
      next
   print(i)
}

## [1] 2
## [1] 4
## [1] 6
## [1] 8
## [1] 10

next jumps over printing where modulo of division by 2 is not 0.

16.1.5 When (Not) To Use Loops In R?

In general, use loops if it improves code readability, makes it easier to extend the code, and does not cause too big inefficiencies. In practice, it means use loops for repeating something slow. Don’t use loops if you can use vectorized operators instead.

For instance, look at the examples above where we were reading data until it was good. There is probably very little you can achieve by avoiding loops–except making your code messy. First, the input will probably attempted a few times only (otherwise re-consider how you get your data), and second, data input is probably a far slower process than the loop overhead. Just use the loop.

Similar arguments hold if you consider to loop over input files to read, output files to create, figures to plot, webpage to scrape… In all these cases the loop overheads are negligible compared to the task performed inside the loops. And there are no real vectorized alternatives anyway.

The opposite is the case where good alternatives exist. Never do this kind of computations in R:

res <- numeric()
for(i in 1:1000) {
   res <- c(res, sqrt(i))
}

This loop introduces three inefficiencies. First, and most importantly, you are growing your results vector res when adding new values to it. This involves creating new and longer vectors again and again when the old one is filled up. This is very slow. Second, as the true vectorized alternatives exist here, one can easily speed up the code by a magnitude or more by just switching to the vectorized code. Third, and this is a very important point again, this code is much harder to read than the pure vectorized expression:

res <- sqrt(1:1000)

We can easily demonstrate how much faster the vectorized expressions work. Let’s do this using microbenchmark library (it provides nanosecond timings). Let’s wrap these expressions in functions for easier handling by microbenchmark. We also include a middle version where we use a loop but avoid the terribly slow vector re-allocation by creating the right-sized result in advance:

seq <- 1:1000 # global variables are easier to handle with microbenchmark
baad <- function() {
   r <- numeric()
   for(i in seq)
      r <- c(r, sqrt(i))
}
soso <- function() {
   r <- numeric(length(seq))
   for(i in seq)
      r[i] <- sqrt(i)
}
good <- function()
   sqrt(seq)
microbenchmark::microbenchmark(baad(), soso(), good())

## Error in loadNamespace(x): there is no package called 'microbenchmark'

When comparing the median values, we can see that the middle example is 10x slower than the vectorized example, and the first version is almost 300x slower!

The above holds for “true” vectorized operations. R provides many pseudo-vectorizers (the lapply family) that may be handy in many circumstances, but not in case you need speed. Under the hood these functions just use a loop. We can demonstrate this by adding one more function to our family:

soso2 <- function() {
   sapply(seq, sqrt)
}
microbenchmark::microbenchmark(baad(), soso(), soso2(), good())

## Error in loadNamespace(x): there is no package called 'microbenchmark'

As it turns out, sapply is much slower than plain for-loop. Lapply-family is not a substitute for true vectorization. However, one may argue that soso2 function is easier to understand than explicit loop in soso. In any case, it is easier to type when working on the interactive console.

Finally, it should be noted that when performing truly vectorized operations on long vectors, the overhead of R interpreter becomes negligible and the resulting speed is almost equalt to that of the corresponding C code. And optimized R code can easily beat non-optimized C.

16.2 `apply` family of functions

16.2.1 `lapply` and `sapply`

TBD: sapply

16.3 More about `if` and `else`

The basics of if-else blocks were covered in Chapter Functions. Here we discuss some more advanced aspects.

16.3.1 Where To Put Else

Normally R wants to understand if a line of code belongs to an earlier statement, or is it beginning of a fresh one. For instance,

if(condition) {
   ## do something
}
else {
   ## do something else
}

may fail. R finishes the if-block on line 3 and thinks line 4 is beginning of a new statement. And gets confused by the unaccompanied else as it has already forgotten about the if above. However, this code works if used inside a function, or more generally, inside a {…} block.

But else may always stay on the same line as the the statement of the if-block. You are already familiar with the form

if(condition) {
   ## do something
} else {
   ## do something else
}

but this applies more generally. For instance:

if(condition) 
   x <- 1 else {
             ## do something else
          }

if(condition) { ... } else {
             ## do something else
          }

if(condition) { x <- 1; y <- 2 } else z <- 3

the last one-liner uses the fact that we can write several statements on a single line with ;. Arguably, such style is often a bad idea, but it has it’s place, for instance when creating anonymous functions for lapply and friends.

16.3.2 Return Value

As most commands in R, if-else block has a return value. This is the last value evaluated by the block, and it can be assigned to variables. If the condition is false, and there is no else block, if returns NULL.

Using return values of if-else statement is often a recipe for hard-to-read code but may be a good choice in other circumstances, for instance where the multy-line form will take too much attention away from more crucial parts of the code. The line

n <- 3
parity <- if(n %% 2 == 0) "even" else "odd"
parity

## [1] "odd"

is rather easy to read. This is the closest general construct in R corresponding to C conditional shortcuts parity = n % 2 ? "even" : "odd".

Another good place for such compressed if-else statements is inside anonymous functions in lapply and friends. For instance, the following code replaces NULL-s and NA-s in a list of characters:

emails <- list("ott@example.com", "xi@abc.net", NULL, "li@whitehouse.gov", NA)
n <- 0
sapply(emails, function(x) if(is.null(x) || is.na(x)) "-" else x)

## [1] "ott@example.com"   "xi@abc.net"        "-"                 "li@whitehouse.gov"
## [5] "-"

16.4 `switch`: Choosing Between Multiple Conditions

If-else is appropriate if we have a small number of conditions, potentially only one. Switch is a related construct that tests a large number of equality conditions. The best way to explain it’s syntax is through an example:

stock <- "AMZN"
switch(stock,
       "AAPL" = "Apple Inc",
       "AMZN" = "Amazon.com Inc",
       "INTC" = "Intel Corp",
       "unknown")

## [1] "Amazon.com Inc"

Switch expression attempts to match the expression, here stock = "AMZN", to a list of alternatives. If one of the alternative matches the name of the argument, that argument is returned. If none matches, the nameless default argument (here “unknown”) is returned. In case there is no default argument, switch returns NULL.

Switch allows to specify the same return value for multiple cases:

switch(stock,
       "AAPL" = "Apple Inc",
       "AMZN" =, "INTC" = "something else",
       "unknown")

## [1] "something else"

If the matching named argument is empty, the first non-empty named argument is evaluated. In this case this is “something else”, corresponding to the name “INTC”.

As in case of if, switch only accepts length-1 expressions. Switch also allows to use integers instead of character expressions, in that case the return value list should be without names.

16.5 The `lapply()` Function

A large number of common R functions (e.g., paste(), round(), etc.) and most common operators (like +, >, etc) are vectorized so you can pass vectors as arguments, and the function will be applied to each item in the vector. It “just works”. In case of lists it usually fails. You need to put in a bit more effort if you want to apply a function to each item in a list. The effort involves either an explicit loop, or an implicit loop through a function called lapply() (for list apply). We will discuss the latter approach here.

lapply() takes two arguments: the first is a list (or a vector, vectors will do as well) you want to work with, and the second is the function you want to “apply” to each item in that list. For example:

# list, not a vector
people <- list("Sarah", "Amit", "Zhang")

# apply the `toupper()` function to each element in `people`
lapply(people, toupper)
## [[1]]
## [1] "SARAH"
##
## [[2]]
## [1] "AMIT"
##
## [[3]]
## [1] "ZHANG"

You can add even more arguments to lapply(), those will be assumed to belong to the function you are applying:

# apply the `paste()` function to each element in `people`,
# with an addition argument `"dances!"` to each call
lapply(people, paste, "dances!")
## [[1]]
## [1] "Sarah dances!"
## 
## [[2]]
## [1] "Amit dances!"
## 
## [[3]]
## [1] "Zhang dances!"

The last unnamed argument, "dances", are taken as the second argument to paste. So behind the scenes, lapply() runs a loop over paste("Sarah", "dances!"), paste("Amit", "dances!") and so on.

Notice that the second argument to lapply() is just the function: not the name of the functions as character string (it’s not quoted in ""). You’re also not actually calling that function when you write it’s name in lapply() (you don’t put the parenthesis () after its name). See more in section How to Use Functions. After the function, you can put any additional arguments you want the applied function to be called with: for example, how many digits to round to, or what value to paste to the end of a string.

Note that the lapply() function returns a new list; the original one is unmodified. This makes it a mapping operation. It is an operation, and not the same thing as map data structure. In mapping operation the code applies the same elemental function to the all elements in a list.

You commonly use lapply() with your own custom functions which define what you want to do to a single element in that list:

# A function that prepends "Hello" to any item
greet <- function(item) {
  return(paste("Hello", item))
}

# a list of people
people <- list("Sarah", "Amit", "Zhang")

# greet each name
greetings <- lapply(people, greet)
## [[1]]
## [1] "Hello Sarah"
##
## [[2]]
## [1] "Hello Amit"
##
## [[3]]
## [1] "Hello Zhang"

Additionally, lapply() is a member of the “*apply()” family of functions: a set of functions that each start with different letters and may apply to a different data structure, but otherwise all work in a similar fashion. For example, lapply() returns a list, while sapply() (simplified apply) simplifies the list into a vector, if possible. If you are interested in parallel programming, we recommend you to check out the function parLapply and it’s friends in the parallel package.