A note on writing (formal) academic papers:
Academic writing boils down to taking a position and supporting it with evidence, theory, and logic. When students learn to write position papers in school, they often come to believe (erroneously) that the process goes something like this:
- take a position,
- read to find support for that position,
- write a paper that argues for the position based on this supporting evidence.
This may be OK for high school or even some undergraduate classes, but it is NOT academic writing .
For academic writing in the sciences (behavioral and otherwise), the process is, in general,
- ask a preliminary question - this will guide your reading,
- read what others have written on the subject, both theory and research evidence,
- take a position based on an analysis of what others have written and the writer's own experience, research evidence, and/or logic, and
- write an argument in support of the position, considering evidence that both supports and challenges that position.
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CONDUCTING AND WRITING UP A CASE STUDY
Case studies are in-depth looks at a person or small group of people around a particular question. As with any other form of scholarly writing, you are asking and answering a question. In a case study you present data (information about the case) that bears on your question, and argue for a particular interpretation of that data (the "answer").
Ask a preliminary research question. What are you trying to figure out in this case?
Background reading. Start your project by reading sources relevant to your research question. Begin with readings from the class syllabus, then branch out to other sources (we have useful electronic data bases in the library to help you find these sources.)
Refine your research question. Based on your reading of the literature and your own thinking, refine your research question. What do you want to learn from this case study? Given what you have read in the literature, what theory(ies) do you plan to use?
Collecting data. Data may be retrospective (if you have detailed knowledge of a particular case that you can analyze) or collected specifically for this project. This is a very good point at which to talk to me about your plans.
- For new data: Decide what data you will need in order to be able to address your question (the literature should be helpful here). Make a plan for collecting the data as early in the quarter as you can.
- For retrospective data, try to gather as much evidence as you can that bears on your question (old case files, notes, etc.)
Analysis. Using theories and concepts from the course, figure out what is going on in your case.
- Which theoretical framework seems to best explain what you observed?
- What aspects of the data do not seem explainable using that approach?
- What questions remain unanswered?
- What additional data would you like to have to help you answer your question, and why?
Writing it up
What is this a case of? This should form the basis for your paper. You will essentially make an argument for this person (or group) as a case of _____, using data, theory, and your own thinking. Many case studies have "a case of ____" in their titles--this is a good way to alert your reader to the nature of your interpretation, right away.
Introduction and literature review. Discussion of recent, relevant literature. Sets the stage for your question(s), explains its (their) roots. Shows how present project fits in with and extends previous work. Puts this case in the context of (a) major theoretical framework(s). Make clear ties to the content of this course.
Description of the case and analysis. Clearly present relevant data about the case, and make an argument for a particular interpretation (the results of your analysis, above.) Remember that part of making an argument is dealing with alternative explanations. (Tell why it isn't a case of y, as well as telling why it is a case of x.)
Significance. What have we learned from this case, and why is it important? What does it add to what we already know about socialization? Are there any potential applications of this new knowledge (especially to your own current/future job)? What questions does this case raise for future research to address?
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PREPARING A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
The major task in writing a critical literature review is no different from any other form of scholarly writing: posing and answering a question or questions. In the case of a literature review, your question takes the form of "what is our current state of knowledge about X?" Your answer will be a position--you will give and support YOUR view of the state of knowledge about X: this is focus of the review.
Suggested steps in writing a critical review:
A. The question
- Begin with a preliminary question, based on your course readings and experience with children or particular interests.
- Locate major review and theoretical pieces on your question. Begin with the course readings and the reference lists in individual readings, then consult electronic indexes like PSYCINFO and ERIC (stick to journals and books rather than conference papers). Check the student bibliographies from previous years; there is an extended bibliography for 528 from 2004 on the same page.
- After reading some reviews and theoretical pieces to get a preliminary sense of the field and the major theoretical frameworks, refine your question into a manageable but interesting form.
B. Critical reading
- Locate recent and relevant studies related to your question. It is quite possible that no one has studied your precise question. You must then look at empirical research you believe to be closely related to your question, either substantively or methodologically.
- Read these studies. You should then have a fairly good sense of what's going on in this small area of research, what the major theory or theories are that guide the research, and what some of the remaining problems or questions are. This "sense of the field" will form the core of your paper.
C. Organization and preparing to write
- Begin by writing down, in plain English, your "sense of the field." You should have a main point and two or three major subpoints. Group your studies in relation to these points. (You might not use all of the studies you read!)
- Within each group of studies, is there one which is typical or illustrative? Are others so closely related that they add only minor information about this point? Plan to discuss the most important or illustrative studies in the most detail, relegating others to brief mentions.
- Discussion of major articles should be critical, focusing on the most important aspects of the study for your purpose. (Remember that your task is to ask and answer a question.)
- In your critical discussion of a study, point out important weaknesses as well as reporting findings. Remember that no single study is all-inclusive: all have important limitations. (Look again at the review chapters or articles you found for examples of how to write a review.)
- What next? The final section of your paper should lay out suggestions for future research and/or implications for the field. These should grow directly from your critical review.
D. Writing the paper
- Introduction. Here you pose the question, giving your reader a sense of the purpose and structure of the paper. This is a good place to foreshadow your major point.
- Theoretical framework. This is the beginning of the answer to your question. Provide a context for the reader by outlining the one or two theories you found to be most central to your question and/or most influential in the research you will review.
- Critical review of important studies. This is the most important part of the answer to your question. What do we know? What does it mean? What's wrong with what we know (or think we know?)
- Implications. Now that you've answered the question, what next? (See "What next?" above.)
* empirical reseach means that the researchers collected new data, either qualitative or quantitative. Back to lit review directions.
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WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
This is a standard outline for a quantitative proposal. Qualitative proposals will be a bit different in that the "instruments" and "procedures" sections will replaced by a detailed description of the kinds of data you plan to collect, and how this will be done.
I. INTRODUCTION (What is the problem and how does it arise from the existing literature?)
A. Statement of problem/research question. Includes significance information (why should we care?)
B. Review of the literature.
Discussion of recent, relevant literature. Sets the stage for your questions and hypotheses, explains their roots (where did you get that hypothesis, mister?). Shows how present project fits in with and extends previous work. Puts your proposed work in the context of (a) major theoretical framework(s). (This is where you make your clearest ties to the content of this course.) For a general discussion of how to write a literature review, see previous section.
C. Research questions; hypotheses and/or objectives.
II. METHOD (How will you collect your data?)
A. Subjects. Description of population and sample. If sample not randomly drawn from population, justify and address generalizability concerns. Description of how subjects were obtained (e.g., volunteers, parental permission, etc.)
B. Instruments. How will you measure your attribute and dependent variables? Description of instruments (e.e., tests, questionnaires, observational techniques, interview schedules, etc.) and justification for their use to measure constructs of interest. Reliability and validity.
C. Procedures. Describe exactly what you and your subjects will do during data collection. Include tasks, directions to subjects, time line, etc.
III. ANALYSIS (What will you do with your data in order to answer your research questions?) Description of how you will analyze your data (what comparsions you will make, what statistical or other analytical procedures you will use, etc.) in general terms. How will this analysis of your data help you answer your question?
IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY (Why should we let you do this study or give you money for it? Why should we care?)
A. Potential implications for theory.
B. How does the new information you will have obtained change the way we look at this problem? What are the potential implications for theory? What new questions might arise? How might this study help us do a better job of conceptualizing this problem? How might the results of this study add to or improve our methods of studying this problem?
C. Potential applications. Could the new information be directly applied in educational settings? If so, how and why?
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