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POLS 410   LECTURE 17
Paradigms Shifts: From Exclusionism to Inclusionism


I.  History of the envt. as an intl issue area
    Typical dynamics:  Leader (spurred by active NGO) & laggards;
    Least common denominator effect; power of unilateral action &
    over-achievement; revision w/ more science.
  A.  Stockholm 1972 >> Declaratn on Human Envt; UNEP
 	Issues:  pollution, acid rain, N-S & "eco-imperialism"
        U.S. leadership
  B.  London Dumping Convention (1972)
	prohibits dumping of some   substances, incl. high-level radioactive
	waste, @ sea,   requires permits for others; 66 ntns. now party.
	SU = a lead state
	Recent amendments:  all dumping of industrial wastes banned by 1995
 	& ocean incineration of wasts banned by   1994.
  C.  CITES (1973):  initiated by IUCN, monitored partly by WWF, now lists
      10,000 species on 3 lists; includes   trade sanctions; 108 parties.
      EX:  African elephants
  D.  MARPOL= Intl. Conv. for Prevention of Pollutn fr Ships (1976):
  	response to oil spills; ltd. oil discharges @ sea, banned it in
 	certain sensitive areas; strongly opposed by shipping interests 
	>> didn't come into effect until 10 years later.
  E.  Whaling (1982):  bans all commercial whaling; updated 1946   
	IWC; inst'l mech. = open membership (not a cartel);   
	pushed by NGO's; U.S. = lead state; 
	Japan, Norway, Iceland switched to "scientific whaling"
 	Moratorium still holds.
  F.  Acid Rain (1979 LRTAP):  Scand. lakes = 1st prob.;
	initiated by Brezhnev thru ECE; soft law at first; 
	FRG forests; SO2 Protocol 1985; 
	NOx Protocol 1988;
	Britain, U.S., Poland = laggards
	FRG >> leader 
  G.  Antarctica Treaty (1959, revised 1991):  12 ntns. agreed to set aside
 	national claims to the continent & jointly   manage as
 	"common heritage" of mankind; mining prohibited   for 50 years;
 	wildlife protected;
	regulates waste disposal;
 	increases scientific monitoring.
	Australia = lead state
  G.  Ozone:  Vienna Conv., MP, revisions
	Tech. transfer article:  market intervention can make all ntns
        net gainers.  
	MP >> CFC price up 
	>>tax on windfall profits 
	>> incentive to produce substitutes + $ for tech. transnsfer to LDCs.
	Obvious precedent for climate change treaty:  carbon tax.
  H.  Basel Conv. (1989):  Prior informed consent; signed by 53 countries,
      ratified by only 13, 20 required to take effect
	>> Bamako Convention
	Article on Latin Am. waste trade:  not-so-dangerous waste trade is
 	  also a problem (trash); "waste brokers" arrange transport deals;
	  response to tighter regulatns in MDCs.
  I.  Biodiversity (none, except CITES)
	Shiva article:  clear issue where South has natural resources &
 	  North has tech. + capital; WB following model of TFAP in proposed
 	  Biodiversity Action Plan; based on wilderness "set-asides",
 	  virtually ignores agriculture;
	WB promotes monocultures, the antithesis of biodiversity;
	biotechnology:  patents life forms, promotes uniformity;
	indigenous ppls. give knowledge but are not compensated;
     Q: Why do ntns & companies in North want genetic resources recognized
 	as a common heritage?
	Rio Treaty:  shows power of LDCs; attempts to promote sustainable
 	  devt; employs new conservationist principle: conservation will
	  fail unless it integrates human activity (no set-asides); says
 	  LDC conservation efforts will depend on flow of money from rich
 	  nations; calls for LDCs to share in profits ; U.S. & Japan object
 	  that it fails to give patent protection to American companies that
 	  transfer biotechnology to LDCs & tries to regulate genetically
 	  engineered materials.
  J.  Climate Change (centerpiece of Rio):
  	U.S. gutted treaty -  - no firm targets & timetables; 
	EC: has already commited   to stabilizing emissions @ 1990 levels
 	  by 2000; 
	Germany   & others will reduce by 20%;  

     Unanswered Q:  Why didn't other countries go ahead w/ treaty & leave
 	U.S. out? (as did ECE to UK on Helsinki Protocol).
   
    Issues:
	N-S: MDCs = 20% pop., 80% emissions; U.S. = 20%
	     -- Measure by per capita emissions (good for LDCs) or by 
	     emissions per unit of GNP (good for MDCs, esp. Japan)
	     -- China:  9% greenhouse emissions, not even in top 50
 	        countries on per capita basis; economy grew almost 10% per
 		year thru 1980's & energy use increased 60%/year 
	     >> by 2025 China's CO2 cd be 3 times U.S.'s, mostly from coal 
	    (>> SO2)
	     -- India:  same issue; energy use in 1980's increased 94%
 	       annually.
	     -- Deforestation:  covered in same treaty as fossil fuels?

	Low oil price: $20/barrel 
		>> complacency; 10 years ago, analysts predicted prices
 		   1990's for $75-$100/barrel;
		price of driving a car has never been lower, when 
    		  adjusted for inflation;
 		America's oil bill is now 2% of GNP, or equal to what it
 		was in the 1960's.
  	     -- W/ threat of global warming, low oil prices would make
 	        now the logical time to implement a global carbon tax,
 		but U.S. refuses so others will not.

		Effectiveness?  Envt. has gotten worse.
		Better than nothing, impt. for future efforts; 
		symbolic imptance; rhetorical shift; frameworks for
		future action.