For this assignment, you must write a 6-10 page paper (double-spaced; normal font; 1 inch margins) that reviews and discusses (at least) 2 articles cited in the reference section of the book.
·
Your paper should make
a point or tell a story. This doesn’t mean you should write a
fictional short story. It means
your paper should have a thesis, and that the articles you read should support
that thesis.
·
You must
relate the material you review to your own life. This will allow me to
determine whether you can apply what you have learned.
·
Points will be
deducted for typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors.
· The Psychology Writing Center is available to help you with your paper (http://depts.washington.edu/psywc/). You can make an appointment or download some of their handouts (which are very informative).
· Listed below are some sample topics, along with articles relevant to that topic. These are only sample topics and are to be used as guidelines. You can use one of them as the topic of your paper, or you can choose to write about a topic not listed here. However,
If you choose to write about a topic not listed here, you must
clear it with me in advance.
Also, if you use references not listed here you must clear them with me in advance.
No topics for Chapter 1
1. Research has distinguished between individualistic and collectivistic cultures as they affect the self-concept. Review this research and discuss why it is an important distinction to make.
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this 'we'? Levels of collective identity and self-representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83-93.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among white, black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503-513.
Deaux, K., Reid, A., Mizrahi, K., & Ethier, K. A. (1995). Parameters of social identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 280-291.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514.
Trafimow, D., Triandis, H. C., & Goto, S. G. (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private and the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 649-655.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520.
Beggan, J. K. (1992). On the social nature of nonsocial perception: The mere ownership effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 229-237.
Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. JournalofConsumer Research, 15, 139-168.
Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 34, 366-375.
Hirt, E. R., Zillmann, D., Erickson, G. A., & Kennedy, C. (1992). Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans' self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 724-738.
Nuttin, J. M. (1985). Narcissism beyond Gestalt and awareness: The name letter effect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 353-361.
Nuttin, J. M. (1987). Affective consequences of mere ownership: The name letter effect in twelve European languages. European Journal of Social Psychology,17, 381-402.
Blatt, S. J. (1985). The destructiveness of perfectionism. American Psychologist, 50, 1003-1020.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more: Counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 603-610.
Niedenthal, P. M., Tangney, J. P., & Gavanski, I. (1994). "If only I weren't" versus "If only I hadn't": Distinguishing shame and guilt in counterfactual thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 585-595.
Ogilvie, D. M. (1987). The undesired self: A neglected variable in personality research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 379-385.
Tangney, J. P., & Fischer, K. W. (Eds.)
(1995). Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, pride, and
embarrassment. New York: Guilford Press.
1. Compare and contrast introspection and self-perception as valid sources of self-knowledge.
Andersen, S. M. (1984). Self-knowledge and social inference: II. The diagnosticity of cognitive/affective and behavioral data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 294-307.
Andersen, S. M., & Ross, L. (1984). Self-knowledge and social inference: I. The impact of cognitive/affective and behavioral data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 280-293.
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1-63). New York: Academic Press.
Hixon, J. G., & Swann, W. B. Jr., (1993). When does introspection bear fruit? Self-reflection, self-insight, and interpersonal choices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 35-43.
Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992). Attitudes as temporary constructions. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 37-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wilson, T. D., & LaFleur, S. J. (1995). Knowing what you'll do: Effects of analyzing reasons on self-prediction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 21-35.
Wilson, T. D., Lisle, D., Schooler, J., Hodges, S. D., Klaaren, K. J., & LaFleur, S. J. (1993). Introspecting about reasons can reduce post-choice satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 331-339.
Brown, J. D. (1990). Evaluating one's abilities: Shortcuts and stumbling blocks on the road to self-knowledge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 149-167.
Dunning, D. (1995). Trait importance and modifiability as factors influencing self-assessment and self-enhancement motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1297-1306.
Sachs, P. R. (1982). Avoidance of diagnostic information in self-evaluation of ability. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 242-246.
Strube, M. J., Lott, C. L., Le-Xuan-Hy, G. M., Oxenberg, J., & Deichmann, A. K. (1986). Self-evaluation of abilities: Accurate self-assessment versus biased self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 16-25.
Trope, Y. (1975). Seeking information about one's ability as a determinant of choice among tasks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1004-1013.
Trope, Y. (1979). Uncertainty-reducing properties of achievement tasks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1505-1518.
Alicke, M. D. (1985). Global self-evaluation as determined by the desirability and controllability of trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1621-1630.
Brown, J. D. (1986). Evaluations of self and others: Self-enhancement biases in social judgments. Social Cognition, 4, 353-376.
Dunning, D. (1993). Words to live by: The self and definitions of social concepts and categories. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 4, pp. 99-126). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (1989). Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self-serving assessments of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1082-1090.
Felson, R. B. (1993). The (somewhat) social self: How others affect self-appraisals. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspective son the self (Vol. 4, pp. 1-27). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kenny, D. A., & DePaulo, B. M. (1993). Do people know how others view them? An empirical and theoretical account. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 145-161.
Shepperd, J. A. (1993). Student derogation of the scholastic aptitude test: Biases in perceptions and presentations of college board scores. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14, 455-473.
Shrauger, J. S., & Schoeneman, T. J. (1979). Symbolic interactionist view of self-concept: Through the looking glass darkly. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 549-573.
Vallone, R. P., Griffin, D. W., Lin, S., & Ross, L. (1990). Overconfident prediction of future actions and outcomes by self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 582-592.
Van Lange, P. A. M., & Rusbult, C. E. (1995). My relationship is better than—and not as bad as—yours is: The perception of superiority in close relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 32-44.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1993). Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 708-722.
Beach, S. R. H., & Tesser, A. (1995). Self-esteem and the extended self-evaluation maintenance model. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 145-170). New York: Plenum Press.
Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., VanYPeren, N. W., & Dakof, G. A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: Either ways has its ups and down. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1238-1249.
Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparisons on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 51-69.
Taylor, S. E., & Lobel, M. (1989). Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological Review, 96, 569-575.
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227) New York: Academic Press.
Tesser, A. (1991). Emotion in social comparison and reflection processes. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 115-145). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tesser, A., Campbell, J., & Smith, M. (1984). Friendship choice and performance: Self-evaluation maintenance in children Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 561-574.
Wheeler, L., & Miyake, K. (1992). Social comparison in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 760-773.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271.
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 231-248.
Wood, J. V., Taylor, S. E.,
& Lichtman, R. R. (1985). Social comparison and adjustment to breast
cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
49, 1169-1183.
Butterworth, G. (1992). Origins of self-perception in infancy. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 103-111.
Gallup, G. S. (1977). Self-recognition in primates: A comparative approach in bidirectional properties of consciousness. American Psychologist, 32, 329-338.
Heyes, C. M. (1994). Reflections on self-recognition in primates. Animal Behavior, 47, 909-919.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198, 75-78.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1993). Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures. Child Development, 54, 265-301.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 83-99.
Povinelli, D. J., Rulf, A. B., Landau, K. R., & Bierschwale, D. T. (1993). Self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Distribution, ontogeny, and patterns of emergence. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 347-372.
Brandtstädter, J., & Greve, W. (1994). The aging self: Stabilizing and protective processes. Developmental Review, 14, 52-80.
Carstensen, L. L., & Freund, A. M. (1994). The resilience of the aging self. Developmental Review, 14, 81-92.
Damon, W. & Hart, D. (1988). Self-understanding in childhood and adolescence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children's self- and task perceptions during elementary school. Child Development, 64, 830-847.
Cohler, B. J. (1982). Personal narrative and life course. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life span development and behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 205-241). New York: Academic Press.
Cross, S., & Markus, H. (1991). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34, 230-255.
Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social and personality development (Vol. 4, pp. 275-385). New York: Wiley.
Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum Press.
Marsh, H. W. (1989). Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 417-430.
Mortimer, J. T., Finch, M. D., & Kumka, D. (1982). Persistence and change in development: The multidimensional self-concept. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life span development and behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 263-313). New York: Academic Press.
Ruble, D. (1983). The development of social comparison processes and their role in achievement-related self-socialization, In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), Social cognition and social development: A socio-cultural perspective (pp. 134-157). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ruble, D. N., Eisenberg, R., & Higgins, E. T. (1994). Developmental changes in achievement evaluation: Motivational implications of self-other differences. Child Development, 65, 1095-1110.
Adams, G. R., Abraham, K. G., & Markstrom, C. A. (1987). The relations among identity development, self-consciousness, self-focusing during middle and late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 23, 292-297.
Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1986). How adolescence became the struggle for self: A historical transformation of psychological development. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3, pp. 183-201). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Buchanan, C. M., Eccles, J. S., & Becker, J. B. (1992). Are adolescents the victims of raging hormones: Evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior at adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 62-107.
Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton.
Hirsch, B. J., & Rapkin, B. D. (1987). The transition to junior high school: A longitudinal study of self-esteem, psychological symptomatology, school life, and social support. Child Development, 58, 1235-1243.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 551-558.
Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48, 155-164.
Quadrel, M. J., Fischhoff, B., & Davis, W. (1993). Adolescent (In)vulnerability. American Psychologist, 48, 102-116.
Ryan, R. M., & Kuczkowski, R. (1994). The imaginary audience, self-consciousness, and public individuation in adolescence. Journal of Personality, 62, 219-238.
Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. A., Van Cleave, E. F., & Bush, D. M. (1979). Entry into early adolescence: The impact of school structure, puberty, and early dating on self-esteem. American Sociological Review, 44, 948-967.
Waterman, A. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18, 341-358.
Self-Concept
Certainty
Baumgardner, A. H. (1990). To know oneself is to like oneself: Self-certainty and
self-affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58,
1062-1072.
Campbell, J. D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 538-549.
Pelham, B. W. (1991a). On confidence and consequence: The certainty and importance of self-knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 518-530.
Swann, W. B., Jr., & Ely, R. J. (1984). A battle of wills: Self-verification versus behavioral confirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1287-1302.
Self-Complexity
Dixon, T. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the self: The moderating
effect of self-complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17,
363-368.
Donahue, E. M., Robins, R. W., Roberts, B. W., & John, O. P. (1993). The divided self: Concurrent and longitudinal effects of psychological adjustment and social roles on self-concept differentiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 834-846.
Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don't put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 3, 94-120.
Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663-676.
Niedenthal, P. M., Setterlund, M. B., & Wherry, M. B. (1992). Possible self-complexity and affective reactions to goal-relevant evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 5-16.
Thoits, P. (1983). Multiple identities and psychological well-being. American Sociological Review, 48, 174-187.
Self-Schemas
Bargh, J. A. (1982). Attention and automaticity in the processing of
self-relevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43,
425-436.
Bem, D. J., & Allen, A. (1974). On predicting some of the people some of the time: The search for cross-situational consistencies in behavior. Psychological Review, 81, 506-520.
Fong, G. T., & Markus, H. (1982). Self-schemas and judgments about others. Social Cognition, 3, 191-204.
Higgins, E. T. & King, G. (1981). Accessibility of social constructs: Information processing consequences of individual and contextual variability. In N. Cantor & J. Kihlstrom (eds.), Personality, cognition, and social interaction (pp. 69-121). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lewicki, P. (1983). Self-image bias in person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 384-393.
Lewicki, P. (1984). Self-schema and social information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1177-1190.
Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
Markus, H. (1983). Self-knowledge: An expanded view. Journal of Personality, 51, 543-565.
Markus, H., & Kunda, Z. (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 858-866.
Markus, H., & Smith, J. (1981). The influence of self-schemata on the perception of others. In N. Cantor & J. F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), Personality, cognition, and social interaction (pp. 232-262). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic
self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of
Psychology, 38, 299-337.
Bachman, J. G., & O'Malley, P. M. (1986). Self-concepts, self-esteem, and educational experiences: The frog pond revisited (again). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 33-46.
Baldwin, M. W. (1994). Primed relational schemas as a source of self-evaluative reactions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 380-403.
Baldwin, M. W., Carrell, S. E., & Lopez, D. F. (1990). Priming relationship schemas: My advisor and the Pope are watching me from the back of my mind. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 435-454.
Davis, J. A. (1966). The campus as a frog pond: An application of the theory of relative deprivation to career decisions of college men. American Journal of Sociology, 72, 17-31.
Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475-482.
Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G. (1994). Self-evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268-275.
Brown, J. D., Novick, N. J., Lord, K. A., & Richards, J. M. (1992). When Gulliver travels: Social context, psychological closeness, and self-appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 717-727.
Marsh, H. W., & Parker, J. W. (1984). Determinants of student self-concept: Is it better to be a relatively large fish in a small pond even if you don't learn to swim as well? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 213-231
McGuire, W. J., & McGuire, C. V. (1981). The spontaneous self-concept as affected by personal distinctiveness. In M. D. Lynch, A. A. Norem-Hebeisen, & K. J. Gergen (Eds.), Self-concept: Advances in theory and research (pp. 147-171). Cambridge, MA: Balinger.
McGuire, W. J., & McGuire, C. V. (1988). Content and process in the experience of self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 97-144). New York: Academic Press.
Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J.. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 148-156.
Pelham, B. W., & Wachsmuth, J. O. (1995). The waxing and waning of the social self: Assimilation and contrast in social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 825-838.
Simon, B., & Hamilton, D. L. (1994). Self-stereotyping and social context: The effects of relative in-group size and in-group status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 699-711.
Simon, B., Pantaleo, G., & Mummendey, A.
(1995). Unique individual or interchangeable group member: Accentuation of
intragroup differences versus similarities as an indicator of the individual
self versus the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 69, 106-119.
Conway, M., & Ross, M. (1984). Getting what you want by revising what you had. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 738-748.
Greenwald, A. G. (1981). Self and memory. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 15, 201-236.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1989). The self as a memory system: Powerful but ordinary. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 41-54.
Klein, S. B., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1986). Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 26-38.
Klein, S. B., & Loftus, J. (1988). The nature of self-referent encoding: The contributions of elaborative and organizational process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 5-11.
Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677-688.
Ross, M., & Sicoly, P. (1979). Egocentric
biases in availability and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 37, 322-336.
Aronson, E. (1992). The return of the repressed: Dissonance theory makes a comeback. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 303-311.
Brown, J. D., & Rogers, R. J. (1991). Self-serving attributions: The role of physiological arousal. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 501-506.
Croyle, R. T., Sun, Y-C, & Louie, D. H. (1993). Psychological minimization of cholesterol test results: Moderators of appraisal in college students and community residents. Health Psychology, 12, 503-507.
Ditto, P. H., & Lopez, D. F. (1992). Motivated skepticism: Use of differential decision criteria for preferred and nonpreferred conclusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 568-584.
Gump, B. B., & Kulik, J. A. (1995). The effect of a model's HIV status on self-perceptions: A self-protective similarity bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 827-833.
Klein, W. M., & Kunda, Z. (1993). Maintaining self-serving social comparisons: Biased reconstruction of one's past behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 732-739.
Kunda, Z. (1987). Motivated inference: Self-serving generation and evaluation of causal theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 636-647.
Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480-498.
Liberman, A. & Chaiken, S. (1992). Defensive processing of personally relevant health messages. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 669-679.
Miller, D. T. (1976). Ego involvement and attributions for success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 901-906.
Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213-235.
Pratkanis, A. R., Eskenazi, J., & Greenwald, A. G. (1994). What you expect is what you believe (but not necessarily what you get): A test of the effectiveness of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 15, 251-276.
Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987a). Toward an integration of cognitive and motivational perspectives on social inference: A biased hypothesis-testing model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 297-340). New York: Academic Press.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & LaPrelle, J. (1985). Social comparison after success and failure: Biased search for information consistent with a self-serving conclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 195-211.
Ross, M. (1989). Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review, 96, 341-357.
Sanitioso, R., Kunda, Z., & Fong, G. T. (1990). Motivated recruitment of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 229-241.
Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, 261-302). New York: Academic Press.
Steele, C. M., & Lui, T. J. (1983). Dissonance processes as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 5-19.
Tetlock, P. E., & Levi, A. (1982). Attribution bias: On the inconclusiveness of the cognition-motivation debate. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 68-88.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory. Journal of Personality, 47, 245-287.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-1184.
Bandura, A., & Wood, R. E. (1989). Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 805-814.
Possible Selves
Markus, H., Cross, S., & Wurf, E. (1990). The role of the self-system in
competence. In R. Sternberg & J. Kolligan (Eds.), Competence considered
(pp. 205-225). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
Markus, H., & Ruvolo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. In L. A. Pervin (Ed), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 211-242). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Markus, H. & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
Oyserman, D., & Markus, H. R. (1990). Possible selves and delinquency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 112-125.
Self-Awareness
Carver, C. S., Blaney, P. H., & Scheier, M. F. (1979). Reassertion and
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