1) define null and alternate hypotheses
 

• null hypothesis - no relationship, no difference, chance, sampling error

• alternate hypothesis - some relationship/difference, not chance, not sampling error

• difference between men and women in ideal number of children, 1996 GSS

• null = no difference, alternate = men and women differ

• men (n = 823)
        mean = 2.75 sd = 1.59
 
• women (n = 1059)
mean = 2.83   sd = 1.63

2) summarize data and generate the test statistic
 

• quantity used to determine probability of observing sampled data if null hypothesis true for population (e.g., t-statistic, chi-square statistic, z-score, etc.)

3) determine probability of observing sample data if null hypothesis true in population
 

• probability value (p-value) - probability result would occur if null hypothesis were true

• does NOT represent probability that alternate hypothesis is true

• sex difference in ideal number of children: p = .26

4) make a decision
 

• accept or reject null hypothesis based on 3)

• requires specifying, before analysis, probability level that is low enough to reject null hypothesis (alpha level)

• .05 =  social/behavioral science standard

• .01, .001, & .0001 more common in biological and physical sciences

• if do not reject the null hypothesis, then result is "statistically nonsignificant"

• if do reject the null hypothesis, then result is "statistically significant"

• if CI for a given level of confidence includes value representing null hypothesis, then result is statistically nonsignificant at alpha level of 1 - confidence level

• if CI does not include value representing the null hypothesis, then result is statistically significant at same alpha level

• sex difference in number of children, 1996 GSS

• 95% CI for difference = .15-.39

• null hypothesis = no difference

• 0 not included in CI, therefore, reject null hypothesis

• statistically significant difference, p < .05

• p-value = likelihood of type 1 error

• reduce chance of type 1 error by keeping alpha level low

• can't specify likelihood of type 2 error because alternative hypothesis really is infinite set of alternative hypotheses

• null = no difference (e.g., Gorton/Cantwell tied)

• alternative = some difference (e.g., Cantwell 50.1%, 50.2%, 50.3%, etc.)

• power of a test = likelihood of accepting the alternative hypothesis when it is true

• can be increased by increasing sample size

• precision increases with sample size (CI narrows)

Factors influencing statistical significance
 

• very weak relationships can be "statistically significant" as a result of large sample size

• GSS, 1972-96: race x living alone

• % living alone: black = 22.0, white = 20.1

• n = 34,381

• RR of living alone for blacks vs. whites = 1.09

• p < .01

• strong relationships can be "statistically nonsignificant" as a result of a small sample size

• hypothetical example - weights of 2 randomly selected cats and 2 randomly selected dogs from animal shelter

• cats = 8 and 12 lbs., mean = 10

• dogs = 30 and 55 lbs., mean = 42.5

• difference in means = 32.5 lbs., but p = .12

• more likely to observe statistically significant result with greater number of significance tests

• if alpha = .05, then expect 1 out of 20 tests to be significant by chance

• hypothetical example: randomized experiment to evaluate a curriculum designed to promote productive, healthy lifestyles

• students randomly assigned to receive the curriculum or not
• 25 different outcomes thought to be affected by curriculum (e.g., criminal behavior, drug use, employment, STD infection, volunteering, quality of family relationships, etc.)

• 2 of 25 hypothesis tests p < .05 in favor of curriculum

• curriculum a success?

• significance testing promotes fishing expeditions - conducting many significance tests and then reporting just the significant ones

When are significance tests useful and legitimate?
 

Major problems with significance testing

1) confuses "statistical significance" with practical significance

2) boils down quantification of data & analysis to yes/no decision
 

• nature is not black and white and neither should our conclusions be

3) virtually all relationships/ differences are nonzero
 

• null hypothesis is almost never true

4) one study does not resolve a question of any scientific or practical importance
 

bottom line: p-values and significance testing irrelevant in most cases

appropriate action: focus on descriptive statistics, CIs, and pattern of results across studies