INDIANS' ORIGINS: SCIENTISTS' THEORIES

I. Early theories

II. Bases for the theory of migration from Asia

A. No evidence of evolution in North America

B. Evidence of ancient "land bridge" between continents

C. Maps of gene frequencies in dispersed populations

D. Comparisons of physical traits

E. Maps of language similarities and differences

III. What scientists say about the first peoples of North America

A. Modern homo sapiens

B. Uncertain migration dates and routes

C. The environments that people found

D. Successive "cultures" -- Clovis, Folsom, Plano

E. Development and diversification, 8,000-2,000 years ago

F. Continuing migrations

ORIGIN STORIES

I.   Indian responses to the Asian migration theory of Indian origins

II.    Indian stories of ancient times

A.    History or mythology?

B.   Arguments for considering them in a college history course

1.    Calloway: Evidence of ways that Indians have explained the world and their place in it

2.   Continuing symbols of historic group identity

3.    More reasons to come (next week)

C.    Discerning the stories' meanings

LEARNING FROM INDIAN HISTORICAL TRADITIONS

I. Stories that correspond to geological and archaeological evidence of events in the natural world

A. Earthquakes

B. Flood stories

C. Their significance as historical evidence

II. Archaeological and historical evidence that corresponds to stories of Iroquois League history

A. The story of Deganawidah, Hiawatha, and Tadodarho

B. Archaeological evidence of ancient non-aggression pacts

C. European records of Iroquois League practices

D. Light that the stories shed on meanings of the practices

III. Ancient Navajo stories applied to make sense of a recent event

HISTORY FROM INDIAN PERSPECTIVES

I. Putting Indians at center stage in Indian stories

II. Considering Indian concepts of history, historical significance, and authority

III. Viewing Indian actions in light of Indian ideas

IV. Cautions and challenges

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES -- DYNAMIC AND DIVERSE

I. Dynamic indigenous societies

A. Common causes and kinds of pre-Columbian change

B. Rise and decline of complex societies before 1492

1. Mound builders of Ohio Valley (Hopewell culture), approximately 200 B.C.-500 A.D.

2. Cahokia (Mississippian culture), approximately 800-1540 A.D.

3. Anasazi of the Southwest, approximately 900-1200s A.D.

II. Diverse indigenous societies

A. Ways that societies differed

B. Relationship of cultures to environments

GERMS AND OTHER EUROPEAN BAGGAGE

I. Appearance of European-made objects in Native communities

II. New germs

A. Reasons for new epidemic diseases in the Americas

B. Timing and scope of the epidemics

C. Effects of the epidemics

1. High death rates

2. Effects on Europeans' thinking

3. Effects on surviving Native people and their societies

III. Other life forms

A. Plants -- new foods and weeds

B. Animals -- pests, food, and transportation

EARLY ENCOUNTERS WITH EUROPEAN INTRUDERS

I. Columbus in the Caribbean islands

A. Columbus's descriptions of Natives and their reactions

B. Influence of his culture on what he saw, what he described

C. Probable mental processes of Natives who encountered him

II. Coronado at a Zuni pueblo

A. Coronado's account

B. A possible Zuni account

III. Some ideas to consider when reading European accounts

A. Native people, like Europeans, tried to match what they saw with what they already knew and believed.

B. Both peoples judged strangers by their own norms.

C. Both peoples had prejudices and "superstitions."

D. Native people, like Europeans, learned from experience.

EARLY NATIVE RELATIONS WITH SPANIARDS

I. First encounters in the South: the De Soto expedition

II. A variety of European colonizers in various regions of North America

III. Culture of Spanish intruders and colonists

A. Long history of fighting "heathens"

B. Experiences in previous colonial ventures

C. Hierarchical society that incorporated conquered people

IV. Abusive treatment of Native Americans and Native resistance

V. Role of Catholic missions in Spanish colonial strategy

EARLY NATIVE RELATIONS WITH COLONISTS FROM FRANCE AND ENGLAND

I. Rivalries between colonial nations

II. French colonists

A. Focus on fur trade

B. Need for Natives' goodwill

III. English colonists

A. Early relations with Powhatans in "Virginia"

1. A Native "empire"?

2. Small band of English adventurers

3. Initial coexistence

4. Eventual wars and Native defeat

B. Diversity of English colonies

C. Early relations with Algoniquian peoples in "New England"

1. Weakened native groups

2. Immigration of English families

3. Early alliances

4. Eventual wars and Native defeat

COMMERCIAL TRADE WITH EUROPEANS

I. Development of Native/European commercial trade

A. Early gift exchanges

B. Early colonists' dependence on trade with natives

D. Native behavior in early trade with Europeans

1. Assigning their own values to European goods

2. Shrewd bargaining and selective "shopping"

II. Development of a new, joint trade culture

A. Natives' conception of trade partnerships as kinship

B. Europeans' concept of an impersonal market

C. Compromises and problems

III. Consequences of trade for Native people

A. Alcohol addiction for some

B. Ecological changes

C. New wealth and prestige for some

D. New kin ties for some

E. Relocations

F. Increased violence

G. Eventual dependence

RESPONDING TO EUROPEAN IDEAS

I. Native people's exposure to Christian evangelists

II. Some characteristics of Native religious beliefs and practices

III. Initial Native responses to Christian missionaries

IV. French Catholic missionaries, 1600-1700s

A. Advantages over English Protestants

B. Factors facilitating Native acceptance of Catholicism

V. English Protestant missionaries, 1600-1700s

A. Reasons for low conversion rate

B. Factors affecting Natives' responses

VI. Religious change in Native societies by 1700s

A. Appearance of Native prophets

B. New syncretic religions

C. Christian converts (praying Indians)

D. Pleas for tolerance of Indian beliefs.

NATIVE STRATEGIES IN A CHANGING WORLD, 1600s and 1700s

I. Natives' need to respond to changes caused by Europeans

A. Opportunities afforded by relations with Europeans

B. Native aims, strategy debates, and successes

C. Possible responses to threats posed by Europeans

1. Moving away from the colonies

2. Forming stronger Native confederations

3. Bargaining and making concessions

4. Waging war

II. The hybrid culture of Indian/European relations

A. Chain of Indian alliances with French, 1600-1760s

B. European "fathers" and Indian "children"

C. Indian rituals and European rituals of diplomacy

RELATIONS WITH THE NEW UNITED STATES

I. End of New France

A. French-Indian (Seven Years) War, 1756-63

B. Indian resistance to British "rule"

II. Indian-colonist relations in mid-18th century

A. A lot of peaceful interaction

B. A lot of conflict

III. Indians and the American Revolution

A. Colonists' resentment of the King's effort to take control of Indian affairs

B. Indians' importance in the war for independence

C. War's impact on Indians

IV. Reason to survey history of U.S. Indian policy

V. Relations with the new republic, 1780s-1810s

A. Continuing conflict in the West

B. First U.S. policies affecting Indians

1. Acquiring land, peacefully if possible

2. Facilitating western settlement

RESISTANCE, TREATIES, AND NEW STRATEGIES

I. Facing an expansionist United States

A. First U.S. approach to Indian affairs

B. Indians' reasons for selling land

C. Continuing conflict and increasing Indian hardship

II. Native resistance movements, 1811-1813

A. Tenskwatawa's message of religious renewal

B. Tecumseh's effort to organize political resistance

C. Creek resisters and a Creek civil war

D. Defeat in the war of 1812

III. Cherokee strategy of change and accommodation

A. Need for new economic practices

B. Need for political centralization

IV. Debate in the U.S.: what to do with Indians?

EMERGING CONCEPTIONS OF "INDIANNESS"

I. "Indian" -- a common term for indigenous people by late 1700s

II. Common Euro-American images or conceptions of "Indians" in early 1800s

A. Reasons to consider them

1. Influence on U.S. policy

2, Indians' need to respond and to determine their own meanings of "Indian"

B. Some visual images to interpret

III. Evidence of Indians' ideas about the meanings of "Indian"

WESTERN EXILE FOR EASTERN TRIBES

I. Pressures on eastern Indian nations and contradictory solutions proposed by Euro-Americans

A. U.S. government efforts to promote Indians' "civilization" and assimilation

B. Proposals to move Indians west, beyond the States

II. The Cherokee Nation's civilization strategy

A. Literacy and a government patterned on the U.S.

B. Georgia's objections

III. A heated debate in the U.S. about Indian removal

IV. Triumph for advocates of Indian removal

A. Andrew Jackson's election, 1828

B. Indian Removal Act, 1830

C. Cherokees v. Georgia in the Supreme Court, 1831-21

D. Removal treaties and forced Indian migrations, 1830-40

IMPACTS OF U.S. EXPANSION

I. Removal of Indians east of the Mississippi

A. Trails of Tears

B. U.S. policy of separate Indian country in the West

II. American activitiy west of the Mississippi

A. Exploration and trade, 1803-1830

B. New American settlements in Indians' midst

1. Texas (Republic of Texas, 1836-45)

2. Mormons in Utah, 1847+

3. Oregon (1848) and Washington (1853) Territories

4. California, 1830s-1850

C. Need for new Indian policy

III. Treaties and conflict on the Great Plains

A. Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1851

B. Sporadic fighting, 1851-1867

C. U.S. Peace Commission treaties, 1867-1868

D. Continuing Indian resistance

END OF ARMED RESISTANCE ON THE PLAINS AND A NEW U.S. INDIAN POLICY

I. Signs of a shift in U.S. Indian polkcy

A. Making room for more tribes in the Indian Territory

B. U.S. Peace Commission and treaties of 1867-68

II. Indian wars, 1860s-1880s

A. Reasons for conflict and nature of the conflict

B. Reasons for Indians' defeat

C. Additional Indian removals and critical reactions

D. Official end of treaty-making and adoption of the reservation policy, 1870s

III. Critics of Indian reservations

A. Indians facing dismal conditions

B. Nearby non-Indians coveting Indian land

C. White middle class eastern reformers

FROM THE RESERVATION POLICY TO A PLAN FOR DISMANTLING RESERVATIONS

I. "Friends of the Indian," humanitarian reformers, 1880s

A. Their grassroots campaign to save Indians

B. Their motivations

C. Their goal for Indians: culture change

II. The Indian civilization or assimilation program, 1880s-1920s

A. Division (allotment) of reservation lands

B. Citizenship and "rule of law" for Indians

C. Education

III. Land allotment in practice

A. Variable implementation

B. Measures undermining the goals of allotment

C. Loss of land

INDIANS UNDER U.S. GUARDIANSHIP, 1880s-1930s

I. The goal versus the reality of the assimilation program

II. Land allotment in practice

A. Partial implementation

B. Practical problems for Indian farmers

C. Sales, leases, and loss of allotted land

D. The problem of inherited allotments

III. Indian citizenship versus Indian wardship

A. Federal management of Indian citizens' property

B. Burke Act (1906): indefinite guardianship for some Indians, early end to guardianship for others

C. Waning government commitment to assimilation

IV. Other reasons for Indians' continuing special legal status

A. Schools for Indians

B. Censuses and tribal rolls

C. Continuing existence of reservations

INDIAN WARDS, SHOW INDIANS, GHOST DANCERS, AND INDIAN PROGRESSIVES IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY

I. Ironic effects of the assimilation program (continued)

A. Separate schools for Indians

B. New legal definitions of "Indian"

C. The persistence of reservation Indian communities

II. Opportunities for Indians to recall and display their traditions

A. Ethnographic researchers

B. Wild West shows and fairs

III. Indian religious responses to stressful times

A. Ghost Dance movement, 1889-90

B. The Native American and Indian Shaker churches

IV. "Progressive" Indian activists

A. Vocal educated Indians seeking full citizenship and respect for some Indian traditions

B. The Society of American Indians and other pan-Indian organizations

THE INDIAN NEW DEAL, 1934-45

I. A U.S. proposal in 1934: Indian self-government on reservations

II. Last years of the assimilation policy

A. Indians in World War I

B. Indian Citizenship Act, 1924

III. John Collier, critic of U.S. Indian policy in 1920s, FDR's Commission of Indian Affairs, 1933-1945

IV. Emergency relief programs for Indian communities, 1933-1942

V. Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

A. Three main features: ending allotment, allowing tribal self-government, seeking Indian consent

B. Mixed Indian reactions

VI. Indian Reorganization Act in practice

A. Tensions and divisions within reservation populations

B. Weak tribal governments

C. Continuing federal supervision

D. Some tangible and intangible benefits

THE TERMINATION POLICY

I. Indian Reorganization Act in practice, 1930s-1940s

A. Government with limited powers, divided communities

B. Indian New Deal accomplishments

II. End of the Indian New Deal, 1945+

A. Collier's policies and programs under fire

B. Conditions contributing to renewed Indian assimilation policy

1. Effects of World War II on Indians

2. National rhetoric of equality

3. Self-determination for colonies elsewhere in the world

4. Conservative backlash against big government

5. Postwar economic boom

6. Cold War culture of conformity

III. Emergence of termination policy

A. Definition: ending federal guardianship of Indian tribes and their members

B. Measures welcomed by Indians

C. Declaration of policy: House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953)

D. Termination of particular tribes

THE TERMINATION POLICY DISCREDITED

I. Termination of U.S. guardianship for particular tribes, 1954+

A. Dividing up tribal property

B. Ending federal programs

C. Imposing state law on reservations

II. The BIA's relocation program, late 1940s-1950s

A. Encouraging Indian migration to urban areas

B. Bad publicity, limited impact

III. A change of political wind

A. BIA dissatisfaction with termination programs

B. Indian agitation to reverse the termination policy

C. Growing national Indian consciousness and confidence

D. Greater American tolerance of cultural differences

E. The rediscovery of poverty in the U.S.

F. The Chicago Conference on Indian issues, 1961

G. National Indian Youth Council

H. The War on Poverty in Indian Country, 1964+

DECIDING ON THE SELF-DETERMINATION POLICY

I. President Nixon calls for a policy of self-determination, 1970.

II. Militant activists demand treaty rights and self-determination.

A. Protests and fish-ins in Washington State, 1960s-1970s

B. Indian occupation of Alcatraz, 1969

C. American Indian Movement

D. Trail of Broken Treaties and occupation of the BIA, 1972

E. Occupation and siege of Wounded Knee, 1973

III. Indian tribes win significant victories in court.

A. New legal services and law firms for Indians

B. Court cases affirming treaty rights and the federal obligation to tribes

IV. "Moderate" leaders work to build tribal infrastructures.

V. Congress provides for tribal self-government.

A. Indian Self-Determination Act, 1975

B. Indian Child Welfare Act, 1978

VI. Review of Indian policy history

THE "CIVILIZED" TRIBES SINCE REMOVAL

I. Sampling Indians' "many histories"

II. The Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory, 1840-1870s

A. Getting established in new homelands

B. Social and political divisions between "progressives" and traditionalists

C. Aftermath of the U.S. Civil War

D. Renaissance of the tribal governments

III. Dismantling the Civilized Tribes

A. White pressure for federal control

B. Creation of Oklahoma Territory, 1889+

C. Allotment of Indian lands -- Curtis Act, 1898

D. Dissolution of the tribal governments, 1906

E. Dispossession of Indian landowners

IV. 20th-century developments

A. Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act, 1936

B. Poverty programs and political renaissance, 1960s

EMERGENCE OF A NAVAJO NATION

I. Evolution of a Navajo culture

A. Dineh migration into the American Southwest, 1000-1500 A.D.

B. Dineh adaptations in their new desert home

C. Navajo culture in the 1700s

II. History of the Navajo Reservation

A. Conflict with Americans, 1860s

B. Exile to Bosque Redondo and its legacy

C. Return to home territory, now a reservation

D. Continuing isolation and growth

III. Developmenbt of a Navajo government

A. Creation of a Navajo council, 1922

B. Navajo reaction to the Indian New Deal

C. Reaction to World War II and post-war conditions

D. Strengthening national institutions, 1960s-1980s

TWO KINDS OF TRIBES IN WASHINGTON

I. Tribes recognized vs. those not recognized by the U.S. government

II. Nature of aboriginal communities

A. Many autonomous villages

B. Networks of ties between villages

C. Individuals with multiple group affiliations

III. Ineffective U.S. efforts to sort Indians in "tribes"

A. Treaties of 1854-55

B. Indians who avoided reservations, 1850s-1910s

C. Continuing links among diverse people of native descent

IV.    "Unattached" Indians and the U.S. government, 1914-1920s

A.    Roblin Roll of landless Indians

B.    Northwestern Federal of American Indians

V.    Erratic application of government policies, 1930s-1960s

VI.    Treaty fishing rights case

A.    An incentive for formal tribal membership

B.    A setback for some landless tribes

HOW THE POWER TO TELL THEIR HISTORY HAS MATTERED TO INDIANS

I. Relevance of history to Indians' present-day circumstances

A. History as a basis for Indian rights

B. History as a basis for pride in Indian identity

II. Uses of history in the Red Power movement of the 1970s

A. Activists' experiences in cities

B. Activists' sense of being cut off from their Indian heritage

C. Turning to history for demands and symbols of Indian unity

1. Claiming the right to tell their own histories

2. Rediscovering and idealizing parts of Indian history

3. Creating new Indian practices by drawing on historic traditions

D. Disagreements about how to depict Indian history